Soviet / Russian Spacecraft and Space Program: Introduction

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During the last five decades the great majority of Russian spacecraft have been pushed into space by variations of two launch vehicles. For the purposes of this guide they are referred to as the R-7 and the UR-500/Proton. Although there have been others, these two designs have proven to be so tough and versatile that they have carried the lion’s share of the payloads.

The R-7 has been the manned launch vehicle since 1961 and has been lofting unmanned payloads since 1957, while the UR-500/Proton has been the principal unmanned heavy launcher since 1965.The R-7 has undergone at least four major upgrades and countless minor revisions. The first upgrade added a third stage which sent Luna I to the moon and lofted Yuri Gagarin’s Vostok 1nto the history books. The next upgrade turned it into the Voskhod launcher that carried the first three-man crew. Mars and Venus probes required the addition of a fourth stage and so the R-7 became known as the Molniya. Finally, a fourth major overhaul turned it into the Soyuz and Progress launcher used today. The R-7 was often renamed after each upgrade while, despite the addition of a variety of upper stages and payloads, the UR-500 has remained the Proton since its first space launch.

The reader may also be confused by the tendency to rename space craft. The generic term Cosmos was used for hundreds of satellites and probes but if the spacecraft performed some important historic function it would often be renumbered and renamed.

Navigating the labyrinth of people, places and organizations that comprised the world’s first space program is a task that would easily have confounded Theseus. Compounding the problem is the Russian propensity for renaming things and shifting responsibilities from one factory to another. The names of the factories, spacecraft, rockets, launch facilities and even towns have changed, and all of this is further complicated by most of the story taking place behind a wall of secrecy that lasted for nearly forty years. Rather than confuse the reader with the constantly shifting dominions of the various design bureaus, some names have been simplified or deliberately omitted.

This guide is divided into several, topical Parts (similar to book chapters), that are arranged (roughly) in the chronological order of the Soviet/Russian Space Program.

Here’s an overview of this guide…

Principal players:

  • Vladimir Chelomei (1914 — 1984) Architect of Proton rocket, space stations, winged spacecraft Valentin Glushko (1908 — 1989) Principal Russian rocket engine designer
  • Helmut Grottrup (1916-1981) Captured German V2 rocket scientist
  • Alexei lsayev (1908 — 1971) Rocket engine designer
  • Sergei Korolev (1906 — 1966) Architect of R-7 rocket, Vostok, Sputnik, Soyuz etc.
  • Nikolai Kuznetsov (1911 — 1995) Rocket engine designer
  • Semyon Kosberg (1903 — 1965) Rocket engine designer
  • Vasiliy Mishin (1917 - 2001) Successor and assistant to Korolev at OKB-1
  • Mikhai Tikhonravov(1901 — 1974) Theoretician and designer for early Soviet spacecraft
  • Friedrich Tsander (1887 — 1933) Builder of first Russian non-solid rocket
  • Dimitri Ustinov (1908 — 1984) Minister of Armaments and political overseer to Soviet missile program
  • Mikhail Yangel (1911 — 1971) Architect of Soviet storable propellant missiles and space launchers

Important places:

  • Kapustin Yar: Rocket launch facility between Volgograd and the Kazakhstan border Baikonur
  • Principal Soviet space launch facility located near to Tyuratam in Kazakhstan
  • OKB-I: Korolev’s design bureau, later renamed TsKBEM, and Energia
  • OKB-456: Glushko’s design bureau, later part of Energia, then renamed Energomash
  • OKB-586: Yangel’s design bureau, later renamed Yuzhnoye
  • OKB-52: Chelomei’s design bureau, today known as NPO Mashinostroyenia
  • OKB-301: Lavotchkin design bureau
  • OKB-276: Kuznetsov’s design bureau
  • OKB-154: Kosberg’s design bureau
  • Molniya: A division of the MiG bureau and builder of the Buran shuttle
  • Khrunichev Machine Building Plant: Was part of OKB-52, then combined with Salyut bureau, now makes space Station modules and Proton launch vehicles.

Important spacecraft:

  • Almaz — Chelomei’s military space station and observation platform
  • BOR-4 — unmanned winged re-entry test vehicle (half scale Spiral)
  • BOR-5 — unmanned winged re-entry test vehicle (one eighth scale Buran)
  • Buran — Soviet space shuttle
  • FGB — Cargo unit for Almaz, used as basis for small Mir and ISS modules
  • L1 — Korolev’s proposed manned lunar orbiting aggregate
  • L3 — Korolev’s proposed manned lunar landing aggregate LK — Korolev’s proposed manned lunar lander, part of L3 LK- I — Chelomei’s proposed manned lunar orbiter
  • LOK — Korolev’s proposed manned lunar mothership, part of L3
  • Luna — unmanned robotic lunar orbiters and landers (also known as Lunik)
  • Lunokhod — unmanned lunar rover, also known as E-8
  • Mars — unmanned Mars probe
  • Mir — large Soviet/Russian space station, main Mir module based on Almaz
  • Progress — modified Soyuz used for cargo transport
  • Salyut — space station based on Almaz, seven different Salyut flew
  • Soyuz — two or three man spacecraft also known as 7K
  • Spiral — Proposed winged shuttle
  • Sputnik—The first earth satellite, also known as PS-I
  • Sputnik 2 — The second earth satellite, carried dog Laika
  • Sputnik 3 — Third earth satellite, also known as Object-D
  • T2K — unmanned, legless version of LK lunar lander
  • TKS — Chelomei’s proposed supply vessel for Almaz
  • VA (Merkur) — Chelomei’s proposed re-entry vehicle for Almaz
  • Venera — unmanned Venus probe
  • Voskhod — converted Vostok to carry extra passengers
  • Vostok — First manned spacecraft, also known as Object-K
  • Zenit — unmanned Vostok, converted to become a spy satellite
  • Zond — modified unmanned LOK (also name for unrelated planetary probes)

Important launch vehicles:

  • Energia — Glushko’s super heavy-lift cryogenic two stage booster for Buran
  • Kosmos —Yangel’s small satellite launcher modified from the R-14 IRBM
  • Molniya — R-7 with I and L third and fourth stage upgrades
  • N-1 — Korolev’s giant booster for manned lunar landings
  • Proton — Chelomei’s heavy lift booster based on UR-500 missile
  • R-1 — first Soviet version of the V2
  • R-14 —Yangel’s storable propellant ICBM, became Kosmos space launcher
  • R-16 —Yangel’s storable propellant ICBM
  • R-2 — upgraded Soviet version of the R-I
  • R-5 — upgraded Soviet missile, flew scientific payloads from 1953-64
  • R-7 — first space launcher, known as SS-6, Semyorka, CH-I0 and Sapwood
  • R-9 — Korolev’s smaller cryogenic ICBM
  • Soyuz — R-7 with I third stage upgrade and launch escape tower
  • Tsiklon — (Cyclone) Yangel’s medium lift launcher based on R-36 ICBM
  • V2 — German ballistic missile also known as theA-4
  • Vostok — R-7 with E- I third stage upgrade
  • Zenit — Large strap-on booster for Energia modified for satellite launches.



Next: Soviet/Russian Spacecraft & Space Program Pt.1

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Modified: Friday, September 11, 2009 10:57 PM PST